Augury and the Will of the Gods

In ancient Rome, augury was one of the most respected forms of divination. Conducted by state priests known as augurs, it involved observing signs in nature to determine the will of the gods. Flight patterns and calls of birds were given particular attention, and augurs used these observations to guide major decisions in both civic and military life. Augury influenced every aspect of Roman society from the founding of colonies and the election of magistrates to the opening of daily markets. Its authority endured for centuries, shaping how the Romans understood divine approval and political legitimacy.

The origins of augury predated the Republic, with roots in Etruscan ritual traditions. By the early Republic, it had become a formal state institution supervised by the college of augurs, a priestly body whose members were responsible for interpreting auspicia publica, the signs that were relevant to the state. The number of augurs was originally three, later expanded to nine and eventually sixteen as Rome’s territories and religious needs grew. Their authority extended over both sacred and civic activities, ensuring that every significant event was sanctioned by divine will.

The process of taking the auspices (auspicia) was highly ritualized. An augur would mark out a sacred space in the sky known as the templum, then observe the movements of birds within it. The species, direction, and behavior of each bird carried specific meaning. Ravens and crows were often considered favorable when appearing on the right, while owls were ominous signs of misfortune. The augur also carried a curved staff called a lituus, used to delineate the observation area and invoke divine presence. Silence and precision were essential during the ceremony as any mistake could invalidate the omen that was procured.

Beyond birds, other signs were also interpreted as auspices, including thunder, lightning, or the sudden appearance of certain animals. When auspices were favorable, public business could proceed. If unfavorable, assemblies, elections, or battles might be postponed. This gave augurs and the politicians who consulted them immense power. Because only they could declare whether the gods approved an action, their judgments could alter the course of political and military events.

The intertwining of augury and politics is especially visible in the late Republic. Magistrates often held priestly offices themselves, allowing them to invoke divine authority in public life. Augury could be used to delay elections, invalidate laws, or question a rival’s legitimacy. One notable example occurred in 44 BCE, when Mark Antony, serving as an augur, used his position to challenge Julius Caesar’s appointment of Dolabella as consul by declaring that the auspices during the election had been unfavorable. The episode revealed how the interpretation of divine signs could be weaponized in the struggle for power, demonstrating how divination served as both a religious safeguard and a political instrument.

Despite criticism from philosophers like Cicero, who questioned the rational basis of augury, the practice remained integral to Roman identity. Even skeptics acknowledged its cultural necessity: it provided a sense of cosmic order and continuity between the divine and human spheres. The rituals of the augurs affirmed that Rome acted under divine guidance, which was a reassurance of legitimacy during times of uncertainty.

In the early empire, augury was restructured but not abolished. Augustus ensured that only emperors would assume the ultimate role of interpreting divine will, thus incorporating augury into the broader framework of imperial religion. Coins and reliefs continued to depict the lituus as a symbol of authority and piety. The emperor’s auspices were believed to ensure the prosperity and stability of the state, continuing the ancient belief that Rome’s destiny depended on harmony between the gods and its leaders.

Augury remained a formal part of Roman state religion well into the Imperial period. Although its political role diminished under centralized imperial authority, the rituals of the augurs continued to symbolize the sacred foundation of Roman governance. Their practices reflected a worldview in which divine order and civic order were inseparable, ensuring that every public act carried the approval of the gods.

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