Theaters (General)

During the Roman Republic, theaters in Rome were typically temporary wooden structures erected for annual religious festivals, particularly those honoring Magna Mater on the Palatine Hill and Apollo in the Campus Martius. These theaters were constructed for the performances and dismantled once the festival ended. As Rome’s wealth and prestige increased, temporary theaters became larger and more elaborate. This tradition ended in 55 BCE when Pompey the Great built Rome’s first permanent stone theater in the Campus Martius, despite longstanding opposition to permanent theater buildings in the city.

Roman theaters generally followed the same architectural principles as Greek theaters, but with one important difference. Greek theaters were usually built into natural hillsides, whereas Roman theaters were typically free-standing structures supported by arches and vaults. Roman theaters were constructed throughout the empire, from Spain to the Middle East. Hundreds have been identified, many surviving in varying states of preservation

Although regional variations existed, Roman theaters shared a common layout:

• Scaenae frons – the monumental architectural backdrop at the rear of the stage, often decorated with columns, niches, and statues.
• Pulpitum – the raised stage on which performances took place.
• Proscaenium – the decorated wall supporting the front edge of the stage, often adorned with niches and sculptural decoration.
• Orchestra – the semicircular area between the stage and seating. Unlike in Greek theaters, where performances often occurred in the orchestra, Roman theaters reserved this space primarily for honored guests and officials.
• Cavea – the curved seating area for spectators. Seating reflected Roman social hierarchy, with wealthier citizens seated closer to the stage and poorer spectators seated higher up.
• Vomitoria – passageways and corridors that allowed spectators to enter, exit, and move throughout the theater efficiently. Despite the modern misconception, the term has nothing to do with vomiting.

Roman theaters were generally open to the sky. Rather than using permanent roofs, large fabric awnings known as velaria could be extended over portions of the seating area to provide shade. Similar systems were also used in Roman amphitheaters.

Ancient Rome had three permanent stone theaters: the Theater of Pompey, the Theater of Marcellus, and the Theater of Balbus.

The Theater of Pompey was constructed by Pompey the Great and dedicated in 55 BCE in the Campus Martius. It was Rome’s first permanent stone theater and formed part of a larger complex that included gardens, porticoes, and a senate meeting hall known as the Curia of Pompey, where Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE.

The Theater of Marcellus was originally planned by Julius Caesar near the Forum Holitorium on the lower slopes of the Capitoline Hill. To make room for the project, the Temple of Pietas was demolished. After Caesar’s assassination, Augustus revised the design and completed the theater as a free-standing structure, dedicating it to his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus. The theater was formally inaugurated in 13 BCE.

The Theater of Balbus was built by Lucius Cornelius Balbus following his triumph of 19 BCE. According to ancient sources, the theater’s inauguration coincided with a flood of the Tiber River, forcing some guests to arrive by boat.

Modern estimates suggest that the Theaters of Pompey and Marcellus each accommodated approximately 15,000 spectators, while the Theater of Balbus held around 8,000.

Among the best-preserved Roman theaters in the empire are those at Aspendos and Ephesus in modern Turkey, Orange in France, and Mérida in Spain.

In addition to theaters, Roman cities often contained odeons. These were smaller, more intimate performance venues used primarily for music, singing, poetry recitals, rhetorical displays, and competitions. Unlike larger theaters designed for dramatic productions, odeons were often roofed to improve acoustics. In Rome, the best-known example was Domitian’s Odeon, located near his stadium in the Campus Martius.

Bibliography:

• Beacham, Richard C. The Roman Theatre and Its Audience. Harvard University Press, 1991.
• Bieber, Margarete. The History of the Greek and Roman Theater. 2nd ed. Princeton University Press, 1961.
• Boatwright, Mary T. “Theaters in the Roman Empire.” The Biblical Archaeologist 53, no. 4 (1990): 184–92. https://doi.org/10.2307/3210163.
• Sear, Frank. Roman Theatres: An Architectural Study. Oxford University Press, 2006.