Horti Romani

The Roman horti, or garden estates, formed a landscape of luxury villas and landscaped gardens that surrounded much of ancient Rome. Although most of these estates have disappeared, archaeologists and historians can reconstruct their appearance through surviving ruins, artworks, and ancient literary descriptions.

The fashion for the horti began during the late Republic. One of the earliest and most famous examples belonged to the statesman and general Lucullus, who built a lavish villa on the Pincian Hill overlooking the Campus Martius after retiring from public life. Known for extravagant banquets, gardens, and entertainment, the estate became a symbol of elite luxury and was eventually acquired by the imperial family.

Julius Caesar also owned a famous garden estate, the Horti Caesaris, located across the Tiber in Trastevere. According to ancient sources, Caesar hosted Cleopatra there during her time in Rome before his assassination in 44 BCE. Caesar also owned property on the Quirinal Hill, which later passed to the historian and wealthy politician Sallust. His expanded estate, the Horti Sallustiani, became one of the most celebrated gardens in Rome and later entered the imperial family under the emperor Claudius. It remained a favorite residence of several emperors, including Hadrian.

Archaeological discoveries from the Horti Sallustiani have helped scholars understand the scale and decoration of these estates. The site produced important works from the Ludovisi Collection, including the Ludovisi Throne and sculptures attributed to the artist Menelaus. Other famous sculptures associated with the area, including the Ludovisi Gaul and the Dying Gaul, are now preserved in the Capitoline Museums.

The Horti Lamiani were built by the senator Lucius Aelius Lamia, who held important offices during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. After Lamia’s death, the estate passed to the imperial family, first to Tiberius and later to Caligula. Excavations have revealed evidence of extraordinary wealth, including marble decoration, sculptures, gilded bronze objects, and precious jewels. Many surviving artworks from the estate are now housed in the Capitoline Museums and the Centrale Montemartini.

The Horti of Maecenas are among the best-known garden estates of ancient Rome. Maecenas, a close friend and advisor of Augustus, created a celebrated retreat on the Esquiline Hill that combined gardens, dining spaces, cultural gatherings, and entertainment. The surviving structure known as the Auditorium of Maecenas is one of the few remains of a Roman hortus that can still be visited today. Nearby discoveries, including statues of hunting dogs now displayed in the Capitoline Museums, provide further evidence of the estate’s luxurious decoration.

Although the horti are often associated with emperors and senators, wealthy freedmen also owned impressive estates. Two notable examples belonged to Pallas, a powerful freedman of Claudius, and Epaphroditus, a freedman of Nero. These properties were later absorbed into imperial holdings. Although the original gardens have largely disappeared, later structures built on these sites reveal their continued importance. One example is the Temple of Minerva Medica, a monumental building associated with the imperial complex known as the Horti Variani.

The Horti Variani developed into one of Rome’s largest imperial residences. The complex included numerous residential buildings, halls, and gardens. Construction began under Septimius Severus and expanded significantly under later emperors, including Elagabalus and Constantine. Parts of the complex were affected by the construction of the Aurelian Walls in the third century CE.

Other important horti were located throughout Rome. In Trastevere, the city was home to the Horti Getae, the Horti Domitiae, and the Horti Agrippinae. Additional estates stood in the central Campus Martius, including the Horti Agrippae and the Horti of Pompey.

Together, the Roman horti reveal a different side of ancient Rome: a city known not only for its temples, forums, and monuments, but also for its private gardens, villas, and luxurious retreats. These estates served as places of leisure, political influence, and imperial power, leaving behind a legacy that continues to shape our understanding of Roman elite life.

Notable sites:

• Horti Caesaris (in modern day Trastevere)
• Horti Luculliani (in modern day Pincio)
• Horti Maecenati
• Horti Sallustiani

Bibliography:

Claridge, Amanda. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 2010.

Farrar, Linda. Ancient Roman Gardens. Sutton Publishing, 1998.

Hartswick, Kim J. The Gardens of Sallust: A Changing Landscape. University of Texas Press, 2004.

Masi, Alessia, Cristiano Vignola, Alessandro Lazzara, Claudia Moricca, Mirella Serlorenzi, and Antonio F. Ferrandes. “The First Extensive Study of an Imperial Roman Garden in the City of Rome: The Horti Lamiani.” Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 33 (2024): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-023-00960-y

Musei Capitolini. “Halls of the Horti of Maecenas.” https://www.museicapitolini.org/en/percorso/sale-degli-horti-di-mecenate/

Museo Nazionale Romano. “The Boncompagni Ludovisi Collection.” https://museonazionaleromano.beniculturali.it/en/palazzo-altemps/the-boncompagni-ludovisi-collection/

Richardson, Lawrence. A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.

Von Stackelberg, Katherine T. The Roman Garden: Space, Sense, and Society. Routledge, 2009.