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January was the first month of the Roman calendar, just as it is in the modern Gregorian calendar. It was named after Janus, a uniquely Roman god associated with beginnings, endings, and transitions. Janus was depicted with two faces, one looking to the past and the other to the future, symbolizing the passage of time. The Romans also associated Janus with the beginnings and endings of wars. When the state was at peace, the doors of the Temple of Janus in the Roman Forum were ritually closed. This was a rare occurrence, recorded only three times in Roman history before the Pax Romana ushered in by Augustus.
The month also included the Agonalia, a festival dedicated to Janus, during which a ram was sacrificed in the Regia on the Roman Forum. This was the first of four such festivals held throughout the year, each dedicated to a different deity. Alongside its religious significance, January stood out in Roman history as a month marked by numerous important events.
January 1 (from 153 BCE onward): Newly elected consuls began their terms, public vows were offered for the well-being of the state, and auguries were performed to predict the coming year.
January 1, 45 BCE: The Julian Calendar came into effect under Julius Caesar.
January 1, 42 BCE: Julius Caesar was formally deified by the Second Triumvirate.
January 1, 193 CE: Pertinax was confirmed as emperor by the Senate, beginning the chaotic Year of the Five Emperors.
January 2, 366 CE: The Alemanni crossed the Rhine and invaded Roman territory, contributing to growing instability in the late empire.
January 3, 106 BCE: Cicero, one of Rome’s greatest orators and statesmen, was born.
January 10, 49 BCE: Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon River, triggering civil war and the collapse of the Roman Republic.
January 11, 347 CE: Theodosius I is born. He would become the last emperor to rule over both the eastern and western Roman Empires.
January 11, 532 CE: The Nika Riots began in Constantinople, causing massive destruction and loss of life.
January 13, 86 BCE: Gaius Marius, seven-time consul and one of Rome’s most important generals, dies.
January 14, 83 BCE: Mark Antony, a leading figure in the final years of the Roman Republic, is born.
January 15, 69 CE: Emperor Galba is assassinated and replaced by Otho during the Year of the Four Emperors.
January 17, 38 BCE: Augustus marries Livia, who would become one of the most influential women in Roman history.
January 17, 395 CE: Theodosius I dies, after which the Roman Empire split into eastern and western halves.
January 17, 169 CE: Lucius Verus dies, leaving Marcus Aurelius as sole emperor.
January 24, 41 CE: The notorious emperor Caligula is assassinated by the Praetorian Guard. The next day, he is succeeded by his uncle Claudius.
January 24, 76 CE: Hadrian, future Roman emperor, is born.
January 27, 98 CE: Emperor Nerva dies and is succeeded by Trajan.
January 30, 58 BCE: Livia, the future wife of Augustus, is born.
January 30, 9 BCE: The Ara Pacis Augustae is dedicated in Rome. This date was most likely chosen to coincide with the birthday of the empress Livia.
January 31, 36 BCE: Antonia Minor is born. She was the daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia, sister of Augustus. She was also the mother of the future emperor Claudius.
Bibliography
- Grout, James. “The Roman Calendar.” University of Chicago. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/encyclopaedia_romana/calendar/romancalendar.html
- Grout, James. “The Temple of Janus (Janus Geminus).” University of Chicago. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/encyclopaedia_romana/imperialfora/nerva/geminus.html
- Platner, Samuel. (1929). “Janus Geminus.” In A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (p.278-280). Retrieved from: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Janus_Geminus.html
- Smith, William. (1875). “Agonalia.” In the Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (p.31-32). Retrieved from: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Agonalia.html
- “What’s in a Name? Months of the Year.” The British Museum. https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/whats-name-months-year
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Cite this page as: Darius Arya, The American Institute for Roman Culture, “January in Ancient Rome,” Ancient Rome Live. Last modified 01/28/2026. https://ancientromelive.org/january-in-ancient-rome/
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